What was the role of the people of Southeast Asia in this process of cultural borrowing ?
Were they merely passive recipients of a culture bestowed upon them by them by the Indians ?
or
Did they actively participate in this transfer ?
The
passive thesis was originally emphasized by Indian advocates of the
'Greater India' idea, as well by as European scholars who belonged to
the elite of the colonial powers then dominant in Southeast Asia. The
concept of an earlier 'Indianisation' of Southeast Asia seemed to
provide a close parallel with the later 'Europeanisation' under colonial
to provide a close parallel with the later "Europeanisation" under
colonial rule. The first transchant criticism of this point of view came
from the young Dutch scholar JC van Leur.
Van Leur highlighted the great skill and courage of Indonesian seafarers
and emphasized the fact that Indonesian rulers them selves had invited
Indian Brahmins and had thus taken a very active role in the process of
cultural borrowing. Van Leur's book an Indonesian trade and society was
published posthumously, in 1955. In the meantime, further research has
vindicated his point of view.
The Indian influence is no longer regarded as the prime cause of
cultural development; rather, it was a consequence of a development,
which was already in progress in Southeast Asia. Early Indonesian
inscriptions show that there was a considerable development of
agriculture, before Indian influence made itself felt. However,
indigenous tribal organization was egalitarian and prevented the
emergence of higer forms of political organization. The introduction of
such forms required at least a rudimentary form of administration and a
kind of legimation of these now governmental forms which would make
them, in the initial stages, acceptale to the people. It was at this
point that chieftains and clan heads required Brahmin assitance. Althoug
trade might have helped to spread the necessary information the
inititative came forr those indigenous rulers. The invited Brahmins were
isolated from the ruler. People and kept in touch only with their
patrons. In this way the royal styles emerged in South-East Asia just as
it had done in India.
A good example of this kind of development is provided by thed earliest
Sanksrit inscription found of Indonasia (it was recorded in Eastern
Borneo around 400 A.D.) Several inscription on large Megaltihs mention a
ruler whose name, Kundunga shows not the slightest trace of Sanskrit
influence. His son assumed a Sanskrit name, Ashavavarman, and founded a
dynasty (vansa). His grand son Mulavarman, the author of the incription,
celebrated great sacrifices and gave valuable presents to the Brahmins.
Of the latter it is explicitly state that they had come here - most
likely from India. After being consecrated by the Brahmins, Mulavarman
subjected the nighbouring rulers and made them tribute givers (kara--da)
Thus these inscription present in a nutshell the history of the rise of
an early Indonesian dynasty. It seems that the dynasty had been founded
by a son of clan chiefly independently of the Brahmins, who on their
arrival consecrate the ruler of the third generation. With this kind of
moral support and the new administrative know-how the ruler could
subject his neighbours and otain tribute from them.
The process paralleled that which we have observe in south and Central
India. In its initial stages, however, it was not necessarily due to
Indian influence at all. Around the middle of the first millennium AD
several of such small states seem to have arisen in this way in
South-East Asia. They have left only a few inscription and some ruins of
temples, most of them were obviously very short lived. There must have
been a great deal of competition, with many petty rajas vying with each
other and all wishing to be recognized as maharajas entitled to all the
Indian paraphernalia of Kingship. Indian influenced increased in this
way and in the second half of the first millennium AD a hectic activity
of temple erection could be observed on Java and in Combadiam, wher the
first larger realms hac dome into existence.
Though it is now generally accepted that southeast Asian rulers played
on active role in this process of state formation, we cannot entirely
rule out the occasional direct contrbutin of Indian adventures who
proceeded to the East. The most important example of this kind is that
of the early history of Fuman at the mouth of the Mekong. Chinese
sources report the tale of a Brahmin, Kaundinya, who was inspired bya
divine dream to go to the Funan. There he vanquished the local Naga
princess by means of his holy bow and married her, thus founding the
first dynasty of Funan in the late first century AD. We have heard of a
similar legend in a connection with the rise of the Pallava dynasty and
this way indicate that Kundinya came from south India where the
Kundinyas were known as a famous Brahmin lineage. A Chineage source of
the fourth century AD describes an Indian usurper of th throne of Funan.
His name is given as Chu Chan-t' an' 'Chu' always indicates a person
of Indian origin and Chan-t-an could have been a transliteration of the
title 'Chandana' which can be traced to the Indo-Scythians of northern
India.
Presumably a member of the dynasty went to southeast Asia after having
been defeated by Samnudragupta. In the beginning of the fifth century AD
another Kaudinya arrived in Funan and of his it is said in the Chinses
annals :
He was originally a Brahmin from India. There a supernatural voice told
him: 'You must go to Funan, Kaundinya rejoiced in his heart. In the
south he arrived at "P" an-p' an. The people of Funan appeared to him.
The whole kingdom rose up with joy, went before him and chose him king.
He changed all the laws to confirm to the system of India.
This report on the second Kaundinya is the most explicit refernce to an
Indian ruler who introduced his laws in southeast Asia. In the same
period we notice a general wave of Indian influence in southeast Asia,
for which the earliest Sanskrit inscription of Indonasia - discussed
above - also provide striking evidence. We must however, note that even
in the case of early Funan there was no military intervention. Kaundinya
had obviously stayed for some time at P'an-P'an at the Isthmus of Siam,
then under the control of Funan and he ewas later invited by the
notables of the court of Funan to ascent the throne at a time of
political unrest.
